A typology of spatial orientation systems in the Malayo-Polynesian languages outside Oceanic

Gary Holton and Leah Pappas

Abstract

This paper presents the results of a survey of spatial orientation systems across the Malayo-Polynesian languages outside the Oceanic branch. Although spatial orientation has been studied extensively in Oceanic languages, relatively less attention has been paid to orientation in the non-Oceanic languages. Drawing on recent surveys (e.g., Gallego 2018), reference grammars, and original field work, we delineate three broad types of spatial orientation systems: cardinal, elevation-based, and water-based.

Elevation-based systems are more commonly found in the non-Austronesian languages of the region but can be found also in some Central Malayo-Polynesian languages. Water-based systems in turn include two types: coastal systems which contrast a seaward-landward axis with an orthogonal axis parallel to the coast; and riverine systems which contrast an upriver-downriver axis with an orthogonal toward vs. away from river axis. In the coastal systems the seaward-landward axis is determined by local geography, but the coastal axis is essentially fixed, as in Oceanic (cf. François 2004). In contrast, in the riverine systems both axes are geographically determined; neither is fixed. In particular, the orientation of the upstream-downstream axis is readily determined by the direction of current flow, obviating the need to appeal to post-hoc social explanation for the orientation of the up-down axis (cf. Holton 2017). Cardinal systems—in which two orthogonal axes are essentially fixed—predominate in the west, reflecting a general tendency towards more cardinal systems as one proceeds east to west through the archipelago.

In a number of languages the coastal and riverine systems coincide, suggesting that such coastal systems may have their origins in originally riverine systems. Moreover, such languages are broadly distributed both geographically (Borneo, Maluku, Philippines, New Guinea) and genetically (Greater North Borneo, Greater Central Philippines, South Sulawesi, South Halmahera-West New Guinea, Trans-New Guinea, West Papuan) across the region, suggesting a wider pattern of riverine directionals which may predate the Austronesian expansion (as previously suggested for Halmahera in Palmer 2002: 149).

References

• François, Alexandre. 2004. Reconstructing the geocentric system of Proto-Oceanic. Oceanic Linguistics 43(1).1-31.
• Gallego, Maria Kristina S. 2018. Directional systems in Philippine languages. Oceanic Linguistics 57(1).63-100.
• Holton, Gary. 2017. A unified system of spatial orientation in the Austronesian and non-Austronesian languages of Halmahera. NUSA 62.157-89.
• Palmer, Bill. 2002. Absolute spatial reference and the grammaticalisation of perceptually salient phenomena. Representing Space in Oceania: Culture in language and mind,, ed. by G. Bennardo, 107–57. Canberra: Australian National University.

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